The role of the French army in the unification of Italy in 1861.

 The French army played an important role in the unification of Italy. It's not in the Naver pump below, so make up for it. In the 1850s, Cabur (the second-in-command like Bismarck because there is a separate king) dreamed of reunification, but the problem was the Austrian Empire that controlled Milan and Venice in Northern Italy. Prussia's Bismarck defeated France and Austria at once and achieved German reunification, but he could not dream of becoming a tiny Savoy duchy. Eventually, Cabur sent troops to Russia as a member of the British-French Allied Forces during the Abu Dhabi Crimean War in France. No + Om + Hyun dispatch troops to Iraq? As a result, during the War of Unification between 1859 and 61, the French defeated the Austrian army along with the Savoy army and took Milan. Instead, I'll give a little bit of the Alps to France. After that, Florence and others voluntarily paid taxes, and in the southern Principality of Naples, Garibaldi launched a popular revolution and overthrew the royal family. With Cabur in control of the north and Garibaldi in control of the south, the kingdom of Garibaldine was dedicated to the king of Savoy. For for Kabur, a conservative politician like Bismarck, could not tolerate Garibaldi's popular revolutionary unification. As a result, Emmanuel I, the king of unification of Italy, took advantage of Austria's defeat to Prussia in 1866, and took advantage of France's defeat to Prussia in 1870, and achieved complete unification. Bismarck has benefited greatly. However, it is true that the French army played a decisive role in this process. If the French had not defeated Austria, unification would not have been possible. The Italians would argue that they defeated Austria on their own, but in fact, they were wrong. France, like Gucci, was reluctant to unify Italy. In other words, he only agreed to defeat Austria... ...to protect the Pope of Rome and keep French troops in Rome. Without Garibaldi's popular revolution and France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, unification would have been difficult. This Italian unification process is different from the view of German unification at a similar time. While Prussia dominated and unified Central Europe, it looked everywhere for sabotage... ...unification of weak and small countries. After reunification, Germany became a superpower along with Britain, France and the United States, while Italy managed to become a weak country => a third-rate power. I think this case of Italian unification is closer to us than Germany. ==============================================================================The political situation on the Italian peninsula was an opportunity for the intervention of neighboring powers such as Germany, France, and Spain, but in the 16th century Italy became economically stagnant due to the discovery of the new world and the entry into the Ottoman Turks. Among them, the Bay of Savoy in Northern Italy gradually expanded its power by using the confrontation between Habsburg and Bourbon after the late 17th century, and in the 18th century, Sardinia and Ligria Piemonte took possession of part of Lombardia. Napoleon played a role in bringing the spirit of the French Revolution to Italy, including the abolition of feudal privileges and confiscation of church property by expelling Austrian and Spanish forces from mainland Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the old system was revived, but movements aimed at a constitutional revolution or a republic took place in various places, and armed uprisings took place in 1848 during the heightened revolutionary movement in Europe. However, these movements were thwarted by the armed intervention of Napoleon III, who helped Austria's military and Pope, and only the Kingdom of Sardinia (the Kingdom of Savoy) was able to maintain the constitutional constitution. Since then, the Sardinian kingdom under Victoria Emmanuel II has become the center of Italy's unification. Prime Minister Cabre of the Kingdom of Sardinia implemented liberal policies at home, while liberating Lombardy from Austria through diplomacy that skillfully utilized the confrontation between powers, and promoted the annexation of Central Italy such as the Kingdom of Tuscany and Papal Decree. Meanwhile, Garibaldi led the volunteer army to Sicily and subdued the two Sicilian kingdoms. Thus, the unification of Italy was largely achieved except in the northeastern part of Austria and Rome, which was still ruled by the Pope, and in 1861, the Italian kingdom was established with Victoria Emmanuel II as king.

The invention and history of telecommunications. The Greatness of Westerners Series 3.

 The invention of wired telecommunications, symbolized by Morse code in the 1840s, the invention of American bell phones in the 1870s, and the invention of Marconi wireless communication in Italy in the 1890s are very important. In addition, the revolution of Internet, e-mail, and mobile phones in the last 10 years has been equally revolutionary... I miss the high-tell times. ==================================================The article is very popular. Communication began with the occurrence of mankind. In order for humans to form and live in a society, the necessity of communicating with each other between individuals and society is an absolute requirement. If the other person is close, the doctor communicates in gestures or language, but as the distance between the two increases, it becomes impossible to communicate through words or gestures, or through light, acting, or sound. With the invention of letters, communication developed, and letters were carved on stone, metal plates, woodblocks, and animal skins to convey the contents. The historical emergence of an organized communication system was a station system established for military purposes for the rule of the Persian Empire during the three generations from King Cyrus (r. 559 BC to 530 BC BC) to King Darius in the Persian Empire, and was inherited by the Roman Empire. Subsequently, in the 12th century, there were correspondence between international students from universities located in major European countries and their hometowns in Europe, communication by butcher centered on Schwaben in southern Germany, and communication using silver door cases in 1484. The origin of the communication business was Francesco de Dagis of Italy during the Holy Roman Empire, who established a postal network within the empire in 1516 with the permission of the Roman Emperor to start a private business for the general public. The modern postal system originated in 1840 when British R. Hill devised a flat rate system based on stamps, which is the basis of the postal system around the world. Modern mail first began in Korea with the opening of the Post Office in 1884 between Seoul and Incheon, but resumed in 1895 by opening post offices in Seoul, Incheon, and Gaesong after the Gapsin Coup. Meanwhile, telecommunications began in 1809 with Austria's Jommeering building a telegraph using water electrolysis devices, invented by British C. Wheatstone and F.W. Cook in 1837, and patented by American youth S.F.B.Moss in 1844. Second, the telephone was discovered and invented by Paige (US: 1837), C. Bursul (France: 1854), P. Rice (Germany: 1861), but none of them reached the practical stage, and the telephone invented by A.G. Bell (1876) became the originator of today's telephone. The telegraphy in Korea began on September 28, 1885, when the Seoro Line was opened and the telegraphy transmission began between Hansung and Incheon. Meanwhile, the telephone originated from the installation and operation of a telephone in the palace in 1996, and in March 1902, the telephone service between Hansung and Incheon began to be handled. Wireless communication occupies an important position in telecommunication. In 1895, G. Marconi of Italy invented a method of communication by radio waves by combining his own antenna and earth with an electromagnetic wave discovered by H. Hertz of Germany and a detector invented by E. Branley of France. When the news spread, its practicality and novelty were recognized, and countries competed for research and practicality. In particular, the UK established Marconi Radio Company in 1896, and began to communicate between maritime and land stations or between ship stations. Britain, which was dominating the world at the time, was indispensable to combine its home country and colonies everywhere. In the early days of the invention of wireless communication, many countries believed that the installation and operation of radio stations, which are particularly important for navigation and defense, should be under state control, and the state took charge of them. Meanwhile, wireless communication has the essence that cannot be transferred by a specific country. These are the spatial propagation of radio waves and the commonality of handling methods. Therefore, countries recognized that wireless communication could be effective only by consulting and agreeing to common technical standards and handling laws, and signed the World Radio Treaty in 1903 and 1906 after repeated international conferences. Wireless communication in Korea began in 1910 when radio stations were installed and operated in Gwangje Lake and Wolmido Lighthouse, which also served as route signs and customs monitoring. In the same year, radio stations were also installed in Mokpo and Socheongdo lighthouses. As a coastal station, the Seoul Radio Bureau (currently the Seoul Central Radio Station and the Incheon Radio Station) was established in 1923, and the Mokpo, Cheongjin, and Jeju Radio stations were established in 1924, respectively, to perform both coastal and fixed tasks.

type of punishment imposed by Westerners in the past

 1. Impunity: Although imprisonment is not a common punishment in the Middle Ages, it has been applied more and more to future generations. Most of the prisoners were political hostages rather than criminals, and they were kept alive because they were too valuable to kill. The place of confinement varied depending on their status and the reason for their confinement. Many political hostages, for example, lived in luxury Tom with servants. However, the middle ranks of the lower or the moneylenders were half peeled off and imprisoned in the dungeon. (It was used in such a way that a rich Jew was locked up, and then his relatives gave him money.) JUDICAL Duel or Trial by Combat: On the ground or on horseback using a variety of weapons. According to local customs, the choice of weapons was based on the status and crime of the accuser or the accused. Both the accuser and the accused could apply for a duel, but even the witness who testified against him could apply for a duel. Throughout the Middle Ages, there were no restrictions on the qualifications to participate in duel, including women, physically challenged men, children, and priests. Some had to duel with trained warriors because most courts allowed them to hire champions (meaning duel agents). However, champions were dangerous jobs, and champions who lost duel in most of the Middle Ages had to be punished equally for those accused. Boiling: A person is put into a large cauldron and boiled alive.Dungeon: A dungeon in which a prisoner is cut in half or completely and left to live on three slices of bread and three sips of rotten water. At this time the prisoner could never earn light, and some had to place wooden boards and heavy weights on their chests. Hanging: The most common method of execution. It was held at an intersection to attract a large audience. The hanged prisoner was hanging there. Impaling: A red-hot buggy or stick is inserted into the anus. In this case, the prisoner hung on the tip of an oiled stick, but in the end, he was exhausted and had to be penetrated. Again, the body was left hanging (favorably used by Count Dracula): The sinner hung on his neck until he was about to die (woke him up again) and then pulled the remaining body out of the city and buried in four places away from the village. Garrotting: An executor strangled a prisoner with a string. In particular, the execution of Spain was this way, but other countries also introduced it. Fine: Most penalties could be replaced by fines. In other words, the rich had few opportunities to physically compensate for the crimes they committed. However, if the crime was so severe that he could not afford to pay a fine or could not be replaced by a fine, he had to be punished in court. Blinding: It has been applied to various crimes such as theft and rape. I pulled out one or both eyes. Pulled Apartments: Abduction (called rape even if a woman was not actually subjected to it), treason, murder, and other serious crimes. It was a punishment to tear and kill the limbs of the condemned person by tying them to different horses and then whipping them to run. (=Skilled) Outlawry: Penalties imposed on the Defendant who fled before being sentenced. Outreach means that it is no longer protected by law. When I found them, I had to chase them as if I were killing a wolf. Whoever killed the man who had fled in this way received the prize money, and anyone had the right to kill this man. And the land owned by the sinner was confiscated. Wergild (Wergeld): A custom in England that a murderer owes to the victim's family. The amount was determined by the status of the loser, and the moneyless tribes paid cows and other livestock instead of money. Quartered: Cut the prisoners into four pieces and bury them separately away from each other in the village. This punishment originated from the belief that when the day of judgment came, the body of the dead prisoner was incomplete and could not enter heaven. Pilgrimage: Confinement was expensive, so those who did not want it from the estate were expelled using this method. Those who were punished had to walk from sanctuary to sanctuary for a certain period of time. If the sin he committed was heavy, he had to make a pilgrimage until he died, and the way to be freed from this was only when the saint forgave the sinner and the chain that tied him was miraculously broken. If this was the case, the sanctuary had a tremendous advertising effect, and the number of prisoners forgiven at one sanctuary became the standard for evaluating a particular church or sacred object. However, this did not happen very often, so giving pilgrimages also made the journey of ordinary people and ordinary pilgrims very dangerous. Hamstring: The punishment of cutting the tendon of the spine and making it lame. It is mainly applied to theft and prostitution, and was also used to obtain confessions. BANISHMENT: Treason or whatever crime a judge or king may have committed if he did not want to see a prisoner in his own territory. Deportation was mainly given to noble men and women, but lower classes could have been suffered. The term of type was determined according to the degree of crime and the status of the prisoner. Amputation: Punishment for removing body parts. The area was determined by the presiding judge, and the area cut off was determined by crime (e.g., theft-hand amputation, voyeurism-eye removal), but it was not always like this. Regardless of the crime, the testicles, breast, tongue, and ears could be cut off. This punishment was so common that people who lost their eyes, ears, and limbs in accidents or battles carried around certificates that they did not become like this because they committed crimes. Beheading: Punishment for those who commit major crimes. This punishment was accomplished in many ways, most commonly by placing the head of the condemned person on a pedestal or a block of stone and cutting it with an axe. (British) Another method was where the executioner knelt and sat down, and the executioner dropped his neck with a knife.(German) Some countries have limited the number of times a knife is wielded when executing the death penalty. If the prisoner on death row was still alive after this number of times, he was released. But most of the prisoners had to die painfully and slowly. It was customary for such a cut head to be inserted into a window and displayed publicly for a certain period of time. Embowelling: The punishment of gut removal. It was done to a man who knew what he was going to do with the prisoner's spirit. Pillory: This simply meant tying livestock to pillars and tying people to pillars using handcuffs and iron necklaces. It was a punishment applied to various crimes such as adultery, perjury, drinking alcohol in public places, and spouse abuse. The prisoner tied to the pillar did not mind being teased, abused, or bullied by the passers-by. And the female sinners were especially exposed to rape. Burning: It is most famous for being used to punish heretics and those who practice magic, but in the Middle Ages, hanging was used more often than burning when killing witches were killed. Most burnings were punishments for treason, rape, and kidnapping.

The tragedy of Prince Sohyeon and Hyojong of Joseon, whose theory of poisoning is common...

 Crown Prince Sohyun, the eldest son of King Injo, was taken to Qing Dynasty to live as a hostage, and he died unfortunately due to poisoning, so it is a strange fate that the eldest son Sohyun died of poison.If Crown Prince Sohyun ascended the throne, a new era could have opened in the Joseon Dynasty...In addition, Crown Prince Sohyun was a person who gained the trust of the Qing emperor due to his excellent qualities and attitude toward the Qing Dynasty as a new power without rejecting it while interacting with high officials of the Qing Dynasty.In the end, this is the direct reason for the death of Crown Prince Sohyun... On the Qing side, they only surrendered formally, but in their hearts, they were not pleased with the artisans who did not surrender to the Qing Dynasty...Therefore, there was a movement to abdicate King Injo and ascend the throne of Crown Prince Sohyeon, who was favored by the Qing Dynasty... In the end, the Qing Dynasty stimulated father Injo, who died of suspected poisoning at an early age, and the King Injo, who taught his son to poison in order to protect the throne, was indeed a cancer in the dark. Prince Bongrim, the second youngest prince after Prince Sohyun's death, eventually ascended the throne...This is Hyojong who is famous for his book punishment. King Hyojong has been hostile to the Qing Dynasty, unlike his brother since he was a hostage of the Qing Dynasty.When he ascended the throne, he took measures to quickly expand his military power in the name of cleaning up the disgrace of the Three Kingdoms...There are many evaluations that King Hyojong's theory of northern punishment was a reckless king who had a good spirit but did not consider the suffering of the general public.At that time, when the people were still unable to recover from the devastating devastation of the Great War, the people tried to bear the rapid expansion of military power under the pretext of North Korean punishment.With the death of King Hyojong, the Northern Expedition will be stopped. According to the Annals of that time, most of the subjects except Hyojong and some of the subjects were opposition to the Northern Beol...In the end, the obsession of the majority of his servants, which was suspected of poisoning to prevent the Northern Expedition, ended when King Hyojong died suddenly... In a way, the Northern Expedited by incompetent father Injo, but with different reasons, the two brothers died unhappily.What a strange fate the two princes...

American Imperialism in Full swing-America*Spain War

 By the end of the 19th century, the United States had the highest productivity and purchasing power in the world... It was the United States at the time that desperately sought a market to consume enormous products that even they couldn't control. The United States had already strengthened its dominance and fateful expansion with Manifest Destiny and Monroe Doctrine... The Indian slaughter and the American-Mexico war have reaffirmed their greatness. While industrial facilities grew uncontrollably by using land and resources obtained through slaughter and war, the market was limited. The way out of it was "imperialism," when the owners of industrial facilities in the United States had enormous funds and political power, and whether the ruling party changed or not, these capitalists were always the first to give preferential treatment. The government and they wanted a bigger market, but the world wasn't that easy. At that time, European powers already occupied most of the world, and even China was about to be divided by Western powers. In this situation, an American politician lamented: "What are we doing when Europeans take all of China's huge markets?" We should not hide our strength and release it!" Of course, imperialism is not a very good cause... So there was a big shot who was dominating the American media, whose name was William.--) He was excitedly reporting through the media that Cubans' human rights were blasphemous, and that Spanish officials' denials were on the rise. In addition, he called for the United States to help Cuba's independence, saying that "imperialism" should end. In the end, the United States anchored a warship in Habana, Cuba, but for unknown reasons, the ship was destroyed (so far, the cause of the accident has not been identified, perhaps self-made), and the United States accepts it as Spain's declaration of war. In declaring war, the United States stipulates two provisions... The first was the Teller clause, "The United States fully recognizes the independence and autonomy of the Cuban people," which was put forward to persuade anti-imperialist opinion to persuade domestic anti-war opinion. However, there was another provision, which was the Platt clause, which was truly spectacular. 1. Cuba cannot relate to any state that could threaten its independence. (Actually, no diplomacy is allowed) 3. Cuba must recognize US involvement in order to protect its independence, and recognize US involvement even if the Cuban government fails to uphold basic human rights. 7. Cuba must grant the United States the right to buy land and ports so that the United States can effectively protect Cuba. In fact, Cuba was no different from being an American colony. In addition, there was an independent army in Cuba at the time, and the United States completely ignored them and borrowed old Spanish officials from their new government. At that time, a Cuban Independence General sent a letter of protest to the United States, saying, "I did not enjoy the honor of being briefed by you (the United States) about the surrender and negotiations of Spain...I don't know why Cubans don't vote for the new government, and the old Spanish officials continue to be there, and I'm sorry for that...According to the incredible rumor, you're speculating that the reason I refused to enter Santiago (the capital of Cuba at the time) is that I'm going to slaughter old Spanish officials. My men and I are not barbarians, and we know the logic of civilized people very well. We are just poor and angry patriots, like your ancestors in 1776, "I think this situation in Cuba is a reference for Korea to think about, and during the war, the United States annexed Hawaii... Puerto Rico also took over. And they fought in the Philippines, and they succeeded in colonizing the Philippines. The justification for this was "liberation from Spain." After this war, Theodore Roosevelt was elected president and imperialism began in earnest.

Nazi war criminals who escaped trial - 2

 1. Joseph Mengele

The Auschwitz concentration camp was, above all, notorious for its biological experiments. Joseph Mengele, who tried to artificially create "Arian characteristics and a child with blue eyes" as the principal doctor of the camp, was the most famous among the doctors in the camp. Having driven thousands of prisoners to the death of Gastille or conducted various biological experiments, he was widely known as a "death angel" among prisoners.

"In 1943, typhoid spread greatly to women's camps. 7,000 out of 20,000 people were ill and laid down. Mengele first emptied the 600-member block and sent it to the gas chamber. Then the block was thoroughly disinfected and then the inmates of the next block were sent in. In this way, all the blocks were disinfected. But what's scary is that the first 600 people in the block had nowhere to go but the gas chamber."

He is also awarded a medal for his ingenious idea of eradicating typhoid. According to an arrest warrant issued by the West German prosecution in 1981, "On May 25, 1943, 507 gypsies and 528 female gypsies were sent to the gas chamber." It was hard to understand that he hated and slaughtered gypsies even though he himself had a gypsy appearance and pedigree. Moreover, it was a great irony that after studying Kant's philosophy at Munich University and taking the Hippocratic oath at Frankfurt University, he became the most inhumane criminal.

Along with the Allied pearls, he was taken prisoner by the U.S. military, but he was released safely in a state of confusion by deceiving his identity. Returning to his hometown of Gunzberg, he spent five peaceful years without anyone knowing his history. However, his biological experiment in Auschwitz was also testified at the Nuremberg trial. Hoess, who was in charge of Auschwitz, testified at an interrogation by a lawyer for the defendant Kaltenbrunner of the Nuremberg trial that "a biometric experiment on twins was conducted by Mengele." In December 1946, Mengele felt threatened as he watched the United States bring 23 SS doctors to trial on charges of war crimes and inhumane crimes, and fled to Argentina in 1949 pretending to be refugees.

In Buenos Aires, he worked under his real name as an obstetrician. The West German government issued him a warrant in July 1959. When the warrant was issued, he continued to flee from Argentina to Paraguay and Brazil again. In this state, a mock trial was held in Jerusalem, and television around the world reported it. Israel also sent a petition to Pope Paul II asking all Catholics to cooperate in finding Mengele's whereabouts. Stimulated by this, governments consulted from various angles to arrest Mengele. In Frankfurt in 1985, senior officials from three governments, Germany, the United States and Israel, met to discuss the issue. However, just three weeks later, Germany's Die Welt reported that Mengele's body was found in Brazil. In the wake of the controversy, the Saung Paulo police dug out what was believed to be Mengele's body from the cemetery and verified it by forensic scientists. It was officially confirmed that it was his body, but some still raise questions.

2. Martin Bormann

In 1946, famous leaders of Nazi Germany were all executed in Nuremberg, except for the two. The exceptions were Goering, who avoided execution for suicide in prison, and Bormann, who disappeared with the collapse of the Third Reich. In the course of the Nuremberg trial, Goering said, "The most influential person for the president, especially since 1942, when Hess disappeared, was Bormann. It was a devastating and powerful influence." As Hitler's secretary, he was almost absolutely trusted at the end of the war and reigned as the second-in-command.

When such Bormann disappeared without a trace, intelligence agencies in Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union conducted an investigation after the war. However, he could not find Bormann's whereabouts or even traces of his death. At the Nuremberg war crimes trial, he had been sentenced to death for absenteeism. Efforts to find him continued, and in November 1964, the West German government offered 100,000 marks for those who gave information to arrest him. Prior to that, in 1961, West Germany's Attorney General, Fritz Bauer, convinced that Bormann was alive, declared that he would resume his investigation. In 1965, Friedman, director of the Nazi War Crime Archives in Haifa, announced that Bormann lived in Argentina. The following year, Eichmann's son drew attention by publishing an open letter to Bormann in a newspaper asking him to "get out of South America's hiding place for your father standing in your place." In 1967, the German Ministry of Justice demanded a detention warrant and deportation from the Brazilian Supreme Court. However, there was no evidence anywhere that Bormann was alive. In April 1973, the Frankfurt State Prosecutors' Office issued a final report on Borman's whereabouts, concluding that Borman died in 1945 and announcing that it would suspend official tracking. However, Bormann's whereabouts remain questionable.

3. Heinrich Muller

Mueller was the former head of Geshtapo, Germany, and the Nazi hunters believed in his survival. He is said to have fled to Albania and is hiding in the East, but his existence and residence have never been revealed. In 1964, West German officials examined the body presumed to be him, but no evidence was found to conclude that it was Mueller.

4. Anton Pavelich and Dinko Sakichi

Anton Paveli 전후, head of the Ustasia regime in Croatia during the German occupation, approved the slaughter of Jews, gypsies and Serbian politicians, spent the rest of his life in Argentina until his death in 1959, avoiding the killings despite various postwar Yugoslavian efforts. Dinko Sakichi, who served as the director of the Yasenobatsu camp, also fled to South America and returned to Austria in 1991 to participate in a meeting of survivors of the Ustasia and the Nazi SS. In addition, numerous Ustasia members escaped from camps under the protection of the Croatian Catholic Church and fled to Spain or South America.

5. Criminals protecting criminals

On the other hand, there are cases in which the punishment failed even though its identity and existence were revealed. Nazi criminals who fled to dictatorships, including South America, were able to save a "safe haven." As experts in maintaining the system, Nazi criminals were bound to be useful to dictators in the third world. They knew that adapting themselves to be useful to those in power guarantees their survival. After the war, the Third Reich came to an end, but some Nazi criminals did not. These dictators did not carelessly give up their poor Nazi criminals, and in their hands, they were able to find shelter.

In particular, South America was a hotbed for these Nazi criminals. Traditionally, South America had a strong sense of political refuge. It was not to expel those who committed political crimes. The leader of one country used to seek refuge by suddenly taking refuge in embassies in other South American countries, fearing to set a dangerous precedent after responding to the deportation of Nazi criminals. South American countries have rarely deported killers, and "guests" have always been protected. South America had a special relationship with pre-Nazi Germany. After World War I, a large number of Germans migrated to South America, and they settled in various places, formed communities, and exerted influence on their governments. In the case of Paraguay, Strösner, who became president, was of German descent. For this reason, Nazism and racism had great influence on this society, and Nazi war criminals easily and freely sought shelter.

Among them, Brunner, who has worked as an adviser on Jewish issues in Syria, is a representative case. Bruner, who was Eichmann's right-hand man, was responsible for the slaughter of 100,000 Jews. He avoided prosecution while being protected by the Syrian government, which refused to be repatriated even though his identity was revealed while acting as an advisor to the Syrian government. Despite endless dangers such as being blinded by bombs packed in mails, he was finally able to spend his life in Damascus, Syria.

<Park Won-soon: Forever Chased Nazi Criminals - History of Nazi War Crimes>

Nazi war criminals who escaped trial - 1

 1. Difficulty in tracking and proving

The pursuit or repatriation of the Nazi's has not always been successful. There were not a few Nazi criminals who succeeded in hiding in secret hiding places, and some were explicitly protected by the countries of their residence, even though their identities were openly revealed.

Moreover, it was not easy to identify and prove criminals of crimes that occurred decades ago. Collecting enough evidence to prove guilty was "burdening, demanding time, money, and international cooperation." Victims were scattered around the world after the war, and even if criminals appeared, it was not easy to secure the testimony necessary to prove the crime.

In addition, the bias of witnesses, the sensitivity of witnesses easily affected by the surrounding environment, and the passage of time caused the greatest obstacle to identifying the same person by witnesses. As an alternative, photographic methods were used. In the Walus case, the U.S. government asked Israeli citizens to testify about the war crimes committed by a man named Walus, advertising his photos in newspapers. The validity of the testimony by the photograph was controversial as it was a photo long after the crime occurred and the quality of the photo was a problem. In the case of Kowalchuk, it was judged that the evidence presented by the U.S. government did not clearly prove that the defendant participated in the war crime.

The postwar Cold War between East and West caused a difficult situation even in the Nazi Church. In particular, the statements of the victims there had to be adopted as evidence for crimes committed in the eastern region. However, the trust of Soviet evidence was a problem in depriving the citizenship of Nazi criminals in the United States and other Western countries and convicting them in criminal trials. The testimony of Soviet citizens was the only evidence of many Nazi crimes. However, there was a problem of national interest between the Soviet Union and the United States in determining American citizens as Nazi criminals. In fact, in the Kungys case, the New Jersey District Court of the United States dismissed the claim for citizenship deprivation, saying it could not accept the evidence obtained under the cooperation of the Soviet government.

Above all, the biggest enemy of the execution of Nazi criminals was the years. As decades passed, witnesses' memories became blurred and confused time, place, and case. This confusion, which naturally appears after decades, used to lead to the innocence of the suspect by reducing the credibility of the testimony.

There have even been more cases of witnesses dying. People who spent years in concentration camps could not live up to normal life expectancy. It was very common for Nazi criminals to live longer than survivors of concentration camps.

2. Concealment and Utilization of Nazi War Crimes in the United States

From the beginning, there was a possibility that Nazi criminals disguised as refugees were hiding in the United States, which received the most refugees from Europe. Refugee camps established in Germany under the protection of the U.S. military included a number of Nazi collaborators, and it was reported that one-third of those from Baltic countries were Geshtapo or SS members. Nevertheless, the United States, which led the postwar order, was forced to accept refugees as much as possible. The United States initially introduced a quota system and issued preferential visas to the three Baltic countries or the Eastern Bloc merged by the Soviet Union. The U.S. Congress revised the Special Immigration Act of the DP Act in 1948 and the RR Act in 1953 to remove the existing immigration quota system and enable more immigration to flow in. These immigration-related laws, as well as any Nazi criminal who helped the abuse and punishment of civilians, were excluded.

Despite these regulations, Nazi criminals could easily migrate to the United States, hiding their identity and activities. Under the above Special Immigration Act, the Displaced Persons Commission was established and screening was carried out with the help of the CIC, but it was impossible to properly identify refugees from all over Europe. In particular, since there were few records of refugees from the eastern part of Germany, which accounted for a large proportion by the quota system, it was impossible to actually examine their identities. By 1952, when the DP law expired, 400,000 European refugees had flowed into the United States, of which about 10,000 were estimated to be war criminals. In other words, the United States was a "safe haven" for Nazi war criminals.

However, more specifically, it was because of the Klaus Barby incident that the United States hired Nazi war criminals as intelligence agents.  While Barbie was repatriated from Bolivia to France in 1983 and tried, the U.S. government even made a formal apology to the French government after it was revealed by the U.S. intelligence agency CIC that he was a Nazi war criminal during his country from 1947 to 1951. CIC officials were not punished for such acts, such as transfer under the US Military Criminal Act (UCMJ), due to the expiration of the statute of limitations.

Just before the end of the war, the CIC of the United States separated and protected some Nazi intelligence officers belonging to the Nazi SS, SD, and Geshtapo from Germany and the occupation authorities. It was revealed that he even created what he called a "rat-line" to help wanted Nazi war criminals flee Europe. Some succeeded in obtaining U.S. citizenship with the help of U.S. intelligence agencies.  At the same time as the war crimes trial was held in Nuremberg, the United States was siphoning off war criminals for its own national interest.

After that, with the intensification of the Cold War, the United States strengthened its resolution against terrorism rather than the will to track down and punish the Nazi, and used information officers who had experience in suppressing communists in the past as sources of anti-aircraft front. Moreover, there was fierce competition not only between countries that were deployed for the occupation of Germany but also between U.S. military units, so regardless of their experience during the war, their value as current intelligence agents was weighed. Barby's case was just one example of being hired as an intelligence agent in the past. They were very valuable to the US military, who had no knowledge of the local affairs, and some of Germany's intelligence officers were especially useful because they were familiar with the Communist Party, its members, and its activities under the influence of the Soviet Union. Some argue that there are at least 156 Nazi-related people used by U.S. intelligence agencies over the past decades.

In addition, 1,558 German and Austrian scientists migrated to the United States through an operation called Project Paperclip by the Ministry of Defense and the State Department. Most of them were members of the Nazi Party or SS. Famous scientists such as Werner von Braun, Theodor Zobe, and Herbert Axter belonged to the group. They moved to the United States, breaking away from the principle of de-Naziization policy and war crimes punishment, and worked for various organizations for the United States. And it is clear that many of the scientific achievements of the postwar era were achieved by Paperclip, but at the same time, the achievements also include formidable neurochemical weapons developed by the American people as experimental subjects. At least 20 of the cases dealt with by OSI were Nazi war criminals used by the U.S. government.

The United States refused several requests for repatriation of Nazi war criminals residing in the United States from various European countries. It was because the United States had not yet approved the country or because it could not believe the fairness of the trial. In the case of Yugoslavia, about 700 requests for repatriation were made, but the United States repatriated only about 20 cases to Yugoslavia. The protection and use of Nazi criminals in the United States revealed that the Soviet Union's accusation that "Western countries are holding Nazi war criminals in their arms and refusing to deport them" was partly grounded.